By: Dr Deryck Pattron, Ph.D., Tue Jan 24th, 2006


The study of microorganisms is called microbiology and persons or scientists who study microorganisms are called microbiologists.. Microorganisms are very small organisms and include algae, bacteria, molds, protozoa, yeast and viruses. These organisms are not visible to the naked eye and constitute by far the largest group of living organisms existing on earth. It has been estimated that 6.5 to 33 million people become from ill microorganisms in food and an estimated 9,000 of these individuals die in the United States.

Unknowingly, man has made use of microorganisms since the seventeenth century, mostly in the production of food and drinks such as leavening of bread, souring of milk and making of beer and wine.

Microbiologists study and investigate microorganisms and their relationship with man, animals and plants. Some of the sub-categories of microbiologists include the following: (i) Food microbiologists focus on food pathogens and food spoilage organisms as well as microorganisms in food production, i.e. fermented foods. (ii) Industrial microbiologist work with industries producing products such as alcoholic beverages, amino acids, citric acids, vitamin C and antibiotics. (iii) General microbiologists focus on the fundamental and basic features of microorganisms’ ecology, metabolism, genetics, physiology, morphology and anatomy. (iv) Agricultural microbiologists study plant diseases, the role of microorganisms in soil fertility and spoilage of farm products. (v) Medical microbiologists study the role of microorganisms in inflicting diseases in humans and animals. They research and investigate these organisms to find ways to cure and prevent the occurrence of diseases. (vi) Marine microbiologists deal with microorganisms present in the ocean. This is a relatively new area of microbiology.

Throughout the world, food production and hence the role of the microbiologist has become more complex. Raw materials are frequently sourced globally and food is processed through an increasing variety of techniques. Therefore approaches to safe food production are being assessed on an expanding platform from national, European, transatlantic and beyond.

The role of the food microbiologist in addition to keeping abreast of new technological changes in production methods and in methods of microbiological analysis involves: (i) To monitor the effect of processing changes (pH, temperature, etc.) on microbial load. (ii) To determine the dominant foodborne microorganisms in different types of food. (iii) To detect different microorganisms using reliable and consistent methods. (iv) To establish reliable and consistent microbiological criteria as a numerical means of interpreting end-product testing. Microbiological criteria are implemented by microbiologists in food processing plants based on total counts, or numbers of certain indicator organisms or presence or absence of certain pathogens. The main concern with indicator organisms is what kind of indicator should be considered meaningful in a particular food and in what numbers? The relationship of an indicator to a pathogen is not well defined under all conditions. This makes the role of microbiologist very challenging. (v) Use predictive microbiology as a research tool to understand the consequences of processing changes. (vi) To implement and improve the role of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point in food processing. (vii) To implement the objectives of microbial risks assessment. (viii) To implement food safety objectives in food processing.

Food microbiologists strive to achieve the following: (i) Food that is safe and does not pose a public health risk. (ii) The food products are made of ingredients and materials that are high quality and have not undergone deterioration or contamination during processing, packaging, storing, shipping and marketing. (iii) The food will have the keeping quality that can be reasonably expected of that product.

Microbial quality and safety of foods are some of the primary concerns of food microbiologists. Nine areas have been identified by food microbiologists as requiring monitoring within foodservice and related operations.

(i) Food procurement. The wholesomeness and safe source of food are basic to the protection of the consumer from a public health point of view, particularly of food considered potentially hazardous. A potentially hazardous food may be defined as any food that consists in whole or in part of milk or milk products, eggs, poultry, fish, shellfish, crustacean or other ingredients including synthetic ingredients in a form capable of supporting rapid and progressive growth of infectious or toxigenic microorganisms. This definition does not apply to foods with a pH of 4.6 or a water activity value of 0.85 or less. (ii) Food storage. Storage facilities should be kept in excellent repair and immaculately clean. Dry storage rooms should be at a temperature of 10-21 ºC and well ventilated. A relative humidity of 50-60% is satisfactory. Frozen foods should be stored at a temperature of -18 ºC or below in order to maintain the culinary quality. Chilled foods should be stored at a temperature of 2-4 ºC, meat and poultry at a temperature of -1-2 ºC, fish at a temperature of -1 ºC and fruits and vegetables at a temperature of 1.7-7.2 ºC. (iii) Food packaging. Proper packaging protects food from contamination and unwanted changes in texture and facilitates handling and storage. (iv) Preprocessing. This stage occurs before the processing of food items. Cross-contamination from raw to processed items is a danger that must be eliminated by all control methods. (v) Heat processing. This is a production activity designed to destroy and to kill most if not all pathogenic organisms. The Food Service Sanitation Manual of the United States Food and Drugs Administration states that potentially hazardous food requiring cooking shall be cooked to heat all parts of the food to a temperature of at least 60 ºC. (vi) Food storage following heat processing. In conventional systems food storage may be hot hold, chilled storage or freezer storage. (vii) Heat processing of precooked menu items. Precooked food items that are chilled or frozen, should be heated fast to an internal temperature of 74 ºC. This rapid heating would serve to significantly reduce Clostridia and Staphylococci. (viii) Food product distribution. Food prepared at their place of manufacture must be properly transported at the right temperature to places of services which may be quite distant. Chilled foods should be maintained at 7.2 ºC or below. Hot foods should be maintained at 60 ºC or above. Frozen food should be maintained at -18 ºC or below. (ix) Food service. At the food service centre, contamination and temperature must be carefully monitored.

Food microbiologists have several areas of concern that require further research. (i) Investigating the effects of alternate methods of food procurement, storage, preparation and service upon the microbial, nutritional and sensory quality of selected menu items in foodservice operations. (ii) Determining the effects of innovative materials handling techniques in each type of foodservice system upon the growth and survival of pathogenic microorganisms of public health significance. (iii) Formulating procedures to be used as managerial tools for decision making about preparing and serving quality menu items within the foodservice system. (iv) Identifying factors within the physical environment of the foodservice system that directly affect food quality and safety and correlate the effect of the relationships among these influential factors with food quality. (v) Determining methods through which the systematic control of food quality and safety can be achieved by automated and computerized methods.

References • Health People 2000 Status Report Food Safety Objectives, 2000. • Longree, K. Quantity Food Sanitation. John Wiley & Sons, 1980. • Pattron, D.D. Food

WEDDINGS
A professional chef should be familiar with the proper protocol and etiquette of just about any type of catered affair that is a part of the business. Since wedding receptions can mean big business, knowledge of wedding etiquette is particularly important. When a question or problem arises regarding a wedding reception, you may be the only one with the answer or solution.

Types of Weddings- Whether a wedding is large or small, there are basically four types: very formal, formal, semiformal, and informal. Every other type of wedding is a variation of these four.

A very formal wedding has a large and lavish reception. A formal wedding has a festive reception. A semiformal wedding means a small but entertaining reception, and an informal wedding means a small, private reception.

Most protestant churches use a standard wedding service. The congregation stands during part of the ceremony. Rules on music during the service vary in the different Protestant churches. Wedding attire is usually the choice of the bride and groom, though bare dresses are frowned upon in church.

There are many rules for Catholic weddings, and they may vary from parish to parish. For example, the traditional wedding march is not allowed in many Catholic dioceses. Head coverings are required for all women at a Catholic wedding, including the wedding party and the guests.

Greek and Russian Orthodox weddings are similar in some ways to Roman Catholic wedding. They do, however, differ significantly in other ways, and inquiry should be made about specific customs of the families involved.

Jewish weddings differ considerably between the various branches of the faith. Jewish weddings can take place on any day but the Jewish Sabbath, which is from sundown on Friday until sundown on Saturday. The wedding may be held in any location, from a synagogue to a hotel or catering hall. Marriages are traditionally performed under a chupa, an ornamented canopy which symbolizes the sky and which is supported by decorated standards. The wedding feast is very important in a Jewish wedding, and it is often more lavish than a typical Christian reception. The receiving line and other details are similar to other reception.

In all cases, it’s important to verify the rules and procedures of each individual church or synagogue where the couple will be married.

Ethnic Customs- In Japan, the parents of the bride provide a gift for all the guest at reception.

At a Chinese reception, the bride and groom personally serve the tea at each table, and the food is used as the centrepiece on the table with some other kind of ornament, such as a silk flower.

In Hindu weddings, everything in determined by the wedding couple’s horoscopes, from the day and time of the wedding to what time they leave the wedding reception.

At an Armenian wedding, the most important thing is the food. Shish kebab, rice pilaf, stuffed grape leaves, and sweets are typically served at an Armenian reception.

At a Russian Orthodox wedding, the parents of the bride and groom don’t go to the wedding, but wait for them instead, at the reception hall. When the married couple arrives, there’s kissing and congratulations and everyone watches to see whether the bride or groom will be the first to stomp on a plate that is turned upside down on the floor. Traditionally, the bride gives her husband the first break, which indicates that he will be the “boss” in the family. Plate-stomping is also popular with the Armenians. At the Jewish wedding, a glass is wrapped in cloth and stomped by the groom to shouts of “Mazwltov!”(“Good Luck!”).

At a Russian Orthodox wedding reception the guests never touch the food until the married couple arrives. Then they make many toasts to the newlyweds, drink champagne, and sit down to dozens of appetizers of different caviars, fish, ham, and a variety of pickles. Vodka flows freely.

A Polish wedding features a lot of music and dancing. The reception is started with a Grand March. It is led by the bride, groom, and attendants, and soon takes in all the guests as they wrap around the traditionally red-and-green decorated reception hall. Then they go into the Bride’s Dance, in which anyone who wants to dance with the bride must pin paper money on her dress. This type of “money dance” is also popular at a Mexican reception.

Since the main theme of an ethnic wedding reception is to celebrate the marriage with family and friends, there is no set time when it is over. The party ends only after the guests have had their fill of food and dance. The bride and groom are sometimes the last to leave.

Who Pays For What- Traditionally in the western society, the bride’s family pays for most of the wedding expenses, but there is no set rule on who must pay for what. These days, the bride and groom usually discuss the financial obligations realistically and whoever can pay for certain things does so. The following list indicates the traditional division of wedding expenses.

The bride pays for:

1. Wedding ring for the groom if it’s a double-ring ceremony.
2. A wedding gift for the groom.
3. Presents for the bridal attendants.
4. Accommodations for the out-of-town bridal attendants.
5. Blood test and physical examination

The bride’s family pays for:

1. The cost of the reception, including rental of a hall, caterer, food, wedding cake, beverages, gratuities for bartenders and waiters, decorations, music, and flowers.
2. The bride’s wedding attire and trousseau.
3. A wedding gift for the newlyweds.
4. Wedding invitations, announcements, and mailing costs.
5. Engagement and wedding photographs.
6. The wedding ceremony, including the rental of a sanctuary, organist, soloist, and choir fees, and additional costs for decorations, such as a canopy.
7. Bridesmaids’ flowers.
8. Transportation of bridal party to the wedding and reception.
9. Bridesmaids’ luncheon.
10. Optional: the rehearsal dinner.

The groom pays for:

1. The bride’s rings.
2. The marriage license.
3. A wedding gift for the bride.
4. Gifts for the best man and ushers.
5. The bride’s bouquet, corsages for both mothers, and boutonnieres for the men in the wedding party.
6. Accommodations for out-of-town ushers or best man.
7. His blood test.
8. Fee for the clergy.
9. The honeymoon.
10. Optional: bachelor dinner.

The groom’s family pays for:

1. Their own clothes for the wedding.
2. Their own travel expenses.
3. Wedding gift for the bride and groom.
4. Optional: the rehearsal dinner or any other expenses they choose to assume.

The attendants pay for:

1. Their own clothes.
2. Their own travel expenses.
3. A wedding gift for the couple.

The guest pay for:

1. Their own travel expenses.
2. A wedding gift for the couple.

The Wedding Reception- The reception usually follows the wedding ceremony. After a morning wedding, a light breakfast, brunch, or luncheon reception is appropriate. For an afternoon wedding and reception, punch, cocktails, hors d’oeuvres, and cake are suitable reception fare. For late afternoon and evening wedding, there is a choice of a cocktail reception or dinner.

Let’s take a look at the various elements that make up a wedding reception.

The Receiving Line- It is customary for the wedding party to form a receiving line to greet each of the guests, personally. The bride’s mother should stand first in line as a hostess, unless they are in the groom’s mother’s home, in which case, the groom’s mother should stand first in line and help with introductions. Otherwise, the groom’s mother should stand next to the bride’s mother. Then comes the father of the bride, who has a choice as to whether he wants to stand in line or circulate among the guests. Next in line are the bride, groom, matron or maid of honor, and bridesmaids. Very junior bridesmaids, ring bearers, flower girls, etc, do not stand in line. The ushers and best man don’t stand in line. The usher and best man don’t stand in the reception line either.

If the bride doesn’t have a mother to receive for her, her father or a female relative may stand with her. Divorced parents may choose to stand together in line, or the divorced father may choose to circulate. Unless a stepmother is giving the wedding reception, the new spouse of a divorced parent does not stand in line.

It is a good idea for the caterer to discuss the receiving line with the wedding party before the day of the reception so that all parties are able to take their places as quickly as possible.

Photographs- Formal photographs of the newlyweds should be taken before the guests arrive at the reception. Candid photographs can be taken throughout the affair, and it is a good idea for someone to point out to the photographer the relatives and out-of-town guests of the bride and groom. The photographer should also be aware of reception rituals, such as the bride’s first dance with her husband, cutting the cake, throwing the bridal bouquet, etc.

An exceptionally important point for the entire caterer’s staff to be aware of is never to cut up the wedding cake until all the photographs of the bride and groom with the cake and cutting the cake have been taken.

Flowers- “ Flowers” at the reception may range from simple greenery to elaborate floral arrangements. It is attractive to have some kind of plants at the receiving line. Sometimes the flowers from the wedding site are transported to the reception hall. Oftentimes the table which holds the wedding cake is more decorated than the other tables.

Gratuities- Guests should never have to tip anyone at a wedding reception. The bride’s father (or anyone else who has assumed the responsibility) typically arranges to take care of all gratuities for waiters, waitresses, cloakroom attendants, etc. in advance.

Food- Many receptions have a simple cold, hot or mixed buffet from which guests can serve themselves. If there is room, guests should be able to seat themselves at small tables for eating. And, even though a wedding may be very informal, it isn’t proper to use paper plates or paper tablecloths.

The Bride’s Table- At large formal wedding receptions there is often a “bride’s table” where the bride and groom (on the bride’s left) and wedding party sit. Place cards indicate where everyone is to sit. If some of the attendants are married, and there is room, it is a courtesy to seat the spouses at the table. The bride is always served first, and then the maid or matron of honor, the groom, and then the waiter or waitress continues serving from the center to the ends of the table.

If there is a bride’s table, there can also be a table for the present. The father of the groom sits at the right of the bride’s mother; the bride’s father is opposite the bride’s mother, with the groom’s mother on his right. Other guests may include grandparents, relatives, the clergyman and his spouse. If parents are divorced, they should only be seated together at the same table if they are on friendly terms.

Wedding Toasts- The first toast should be offered to the bride by the best man. The bride should remain seated and not drink, since she is not supposed to toast herself. She should smile, bow, and sip her drink between toasts. If her new husband toasts her, she should return the toast. The bride should toast her parents, and it is also nice to toast the parents of the groom.

Also at this time, mailgrams, cables, and letters from close friends or family who are not present can be read aloud by the best man.

The Wedding Cake- At the end of the wedding meal or after hors d’oeuvres have been served, it is time to cut the wedding cake. A silver cake knife, which may or may not be decorated with white ribbon and flowers, is used to cut the cake. The bride stands on the groom’s left and cuts the first piece. The bride and groom each have a hand-fed bite from that first piece. The caterer then cuts and serves the rest of the cake. (Remember! Not until all the cake ceremony photographs have been taken.)

After the bride and groom’s slice has been eaten, a long, sharp knife is vertically inserted through the cake at the base of the bottom tier, and that layer is then cut into pieces for the guests. The top tiers of the cake are then removed and cut into pieces. The top tier of the cake, which is usually the most decorated, is lifted off, whole, and wrapped and preserved for the bride and groom.

Music- It is always appropriate to have some kind of music at a wedding reception, to add to the activity. It may be the music of choice, from an accordionist moving throughout the room to taped music or a live dance band.

The Bride’s Bouquet and Garter- Traditionally, the bride’s bouquet is thrown to the bridesmaids or single women at the reception just before the bride changes from her wedding dress to going-away clothes. The woman who catches the bouquet is supposed to be the next to marry.

The bride can also throw her garter to the assembled ushers or single men. The man who catches the garter is supposed to have good luck and laughter for rest of his life.

CHANGING MANNERS

Etiquette is a large subject with special “rules” covering a variety of situations. What we have discussed here relates to the general situations most chefs will encounter. If you find yourself specializing in a particular area, such as diplomatic or government or business catering, you will do best to seek out as much information as you can about the rules of that particular etiquette.

In any area, remember that etiquette is a living and changing thing. The social customs that prevail today may undergo many changes in as little as a decade. Be alert for such changes so that you may always have expert social skill to offer your clients.

THE END OF Chef's Guide To Dining Etiquette (PART 1-6)

Frying is one of the most basic forms of cooking and yet, surprisingly, it's the one that seems to go wrong the most often. Cooks who have no problem handling a wok, still manage to make a mess of things when it comes to the humble frying pan.

There are generally two reasons for this. One is that the pan is often either too hot or too cold. The other is that the food is pretty much left to its own devices and either burns or fails to cook through. So here's the number one tip:

Frying is not a passive activity.

Slapping something into the skillet and stirring occasionally is not the way to go. You need to agitate the food on an almost continuous basis, just as you would if cooking in a wok.

To fry successfully - that is, without absorbing too much fat - you must cook at a high temperature. In fact, the fat in your pan should be smoking when the food goes in but it should not be on the heat.

Two things will happen. There will be an instant sealing of the food which will reduce moisture loss and inhibit fat absorption, plus the pan will cool down slightly while still maintaining a cooking temperature.

You need to do two things: reduce the stove temperature to about half that which you used to heat the pan up - and keep the food moving. You can do that by shaking the pan, tossing the food in it or simply using a spatula. That's all there is to it. Just imagine you're using a flat wok.

Does this apply to omelets? Yes it does. They will cook quickly and well using this method. They will also burn easily if left so you need to work at continuously drawing the cooked mixture to the center of the pan and tipping the runny stuff towards the edge, returning the pan to the heat only when it's obvious that cooking has stopped.

Just remember to always treat food in the frying pan as if it's at boot camp. It can rest occasionally, but no longer than is necessary to reheat the pan it's cooking in.

Deep fat frying

Apart from French fries - or 'chips' as the French chefs call them - just about anything deep fried needs to have some kind of covering to protect it. This is usually either batter or breadcrumbs.

Both are simple to do, but have somehow been made more complicated with the passing of time and the elevation of chefs to celebrity status.

These days breadcrumbs are easy. Just buy a packet of one-step breadcrumbs from your supermarket and follow the instructions on the pack.

Too easy? Okay, just once and for the fun of it, find some stale bread, reduce it to crumbs in a food processor (about half a loaf should do it), line it up with a plate of flour and a bowl of beaten egg.

Now coat the food in the flour, dip it in the beaten egg and coat it in the breadcrumbs making sure to use one hand for the dry and the other for the wet ingredients.

When you've had enough of that, try it my way :)

Keep it simple

Batter is nothing more than flour to which a liquid has been added and air has been introduced through sustained beating. And that's it.

You don't believe me?

British famous fish and chips, renowned for the crisp, light batter in which it's fish are cooked. It consists of just three ingredients: flour, water and elbow grease.

The secret of a light batter is to beat in as much air as possible - which is one of the reasons that chilled soda water or beer work so well. They are already full of gas which remains trapped in the mixture as it expands on cooking.

There are no hard and fast rules about quantities. Simply beat enough liquid into the flour to give you the consistency you want. I like my batter mix to coat the back of a dessert spoon when dipped into it and immediately removed.

To coat, lightly dust the fish with flour and pat it in between your hands before dipping the fish into the batter. Hold the fillet at one end, drain off any excess liquid and transfer immediately into the fryer.

Too little heat spells defeat

Once again the trick is to get the fat really hot before doing any cooking. And I do mean hot. Like, smoking hot. The top temperature your fryer permits in other words. (If you cook using an open pan and basket please be very careful with this, fat fires are not a pretty sight).

Yes, I know there are cute little diagrams on the side of your cooker telling you what temperature to use for fish, what for chicken and so on. Ignore them. First heat your fat to the maximum, then add the food, then turn the dial back to the temperature suggested by your product manufacturer.

How do you know when the food is done? It floats to the surface of the fat. Take it out, drain it thoroughly, and remember that it will continue to cook for quite some time afterwards. Which is why chicken can be held until everything else is ready, while fish needs to be served almost immediately.

Follow the simple guidelines above, use really fresh ingredients and you will have nothing but success after success. That really is all there is to it.

Bay (Laurus nobilis)
Native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor. Very important to the Romans and Greeks, where bay leaves were made into wreaths to crown emperors. Introduced by the Romans to Britain. The tree was thought to have magical properties where a pair of bay laurel tree outside a garden gate would ward off witches and wizards. Laurel wreaths were commonly given as sporting, poetry and war prizes, from where the expression came "Don't rest on your laurels", warning the successful not to rely on the garlands of past victories.

Uses


Can be used straight from the tree or dried. It is a good idea to include a bay leaf in soups, stews, and in the making of stock. The bay leaf is removed before serving.

1. Start the day off with a bowl of your favorite, delicious high-fiber cereal, such as frosted shredded wheat or whole grain raisin bran.

2. Put fruits, such as berries, raisins, or bananas, on your cereal to increase your fiber intake by about 1 to 2 grams.

3. Combine the great taste of both whole grain and enriched grain breads in your family’s diet. For example, introduce whole grain taste to the family by using one slice of white bread and one slice of 100% whole wheat bread when making sandwiches.

4. Next time you are making any type of pasta, instead of using traditional pasta, choose whole wheat pasta. Even macaroni and cheese lovers can use whole wheat macaroni.

5. Substitute wheat bran for one-third of the all-purpose flour when making pancakes, waffles, muffins, or any other flour-based food.

6. When you feel the urge to start snacking, reach for a delicious muffin, pretzels, or baked pita chips instead of a candy bar.

7. If rice is what you crave, then steer toward brown rice, which offers increased amounts of dietary fiber, iron, and many B vitamins. Plus, it tastes exquisite.

8. Believe it or not, popcorn can be a healthy snack for you and your children. Just don’t use too much butter or salt on this whole-grain treat.

9. A great substitute for desserts is a bowl of fruit (especially raspberries, strawberries, and blueberries). Try whole wheat bread pudding with fruit, or perhaps a treat as tasty as a whole grain muffin strikes your fancy.

10. Leave the skins on fruits and vegetables such as pears, apples, peaches, and even potatoes, as opposed to peeling them off. Most of the fiber is in the skin, which will help the digestive tract and may prevent colon cancer.

Sources: www.mypyamid.gov; www.the-weightloss-guide.com; Sue Gilbert, MS

There are couple of different theories about the origin of the chef's hat, or toque, and there is probably some truth in both.


Some say the toque can be traced back to the seventh century A.D., when chefs were considered learned men (remember that "epicurean" derives from the name of a Greek philosopher, Epicurus). Learned men didn't always get the respect they deserved, though, and were often persecuted; at such times, they often took refuge in the local church, where they donned the same costumes that the local clergy were wearing, hats and all, as a disguise.
Eventually, not wanting to incur the wrath of God any more than the wrath of the local savages, they started wearing white hats instead of the black hats worn by Greek Orthodox priests, and the toque was born.


The other most prominent story about the history of the toque is that it comes to us from the ancient Assyrians. Since one of the more common ways to do in His Royal Highness back then was to poison his food (not to mention the fact that spoiled food was more common in the days before Whirlpool), chefs were chosen carefully, and treated very well, often even holding rank in the king's court. Legend has it that the chef's high position entitled him
to wear a "crown" of sorts, in the same shape as the king's, though made out of cloth and without all of those bothersome jewels. The crown-shaped ribs of the royal headdress became the pleats of the toque, originally sewn, and later stiffened with starch.


Speaking of pleats, the most widely circulated legend about the toque appears to be one concerning the number of pleats. From "A Pageant of Hats, Ancient and Modern," by Ruch Edwards Kilgour, copyright 1958: "It was regarded as natural that any chef, worthy of the name, could cook an egg at least one hundred ways. The most-renowned chefs often boasted that they could serve their royal masters a different egg dish every day in the year, some of
them so cleverly prepared, that aside from being highly palatable they had flavors as widely different as completely diverse kinds of foods. Today, noted chefs are seldom called upon to prove their prowess in this manner. Nevertheless, they still wear one hundred pleats on their hat, the old-time symbol of their skill in the egg department." Maybe they did back in 1958, but several internet sites advertising toques for sale, both paper and vinyl,
described their hats as having 48 pleats.


The toque has changed many times over the years, but most stories about its origins are variations on one of the two above. Since the most dramatic changes in style and shape are attributable to the French home.

The page or two of your employment history which you commit to paper, your resume, will probably be the first impression you give the next person you want to work for. If it is poorly done, it may also be the last.

Continuation

ALTERNATIVE PRESENTATIONS:

Skill focused resumes: These are useful for people reentering field or changing fields. They emphasize the candidate’s skills which would transfer to the field at which they are directed. Although a number of resume books promote them, they are not much use for anyone in an experience based job in the hospitality industry.

Electronic directed resumes: These very long resumes are more a prediction than a trend. The idea stems from the still uncommon practice of scanning resumes onto a hard disk and using a search program to look for key terms the potential employer is seeking.

The idea is to stuff as many terms as possible into the resume to increase the probability that the it will be chosen and get the attention of the hiring authority.

To seek a good research and development professional, for instance, the search list would include a list of terms such as: Research and Development, nutrition, supervise, computer, food science, develop, semolina, Italian, nutrition, preservative. A computer might separate and print out 15 resumes from a bank of several hundred or thousand.

Once sorted, however, a resumes would still be read and evaluated by individuals, so it would still have to remain manageable.

The advertising letter: Every hiring authority in the country has received dozens of similar letters advertising the qualities of unemployed upper management candidates. Working of a data base, the letters all ask if the firm is currently in the market for a dynamic individual with a stated set of qualities. It then goes on to list that individuals achievements in lowering bottom lines, creating new products, and ends with an offer to send a full resume if the firm is interested.

Some of these letters must be successful, or they would not be so popular. They are sent out by data base, possibly to several hundred or even thousand potential employers.

TERMINOLOGY

The terms for various positions change from country to country and from time to time. The ACF has recently added the term Chef de Cuisine, literally a cook, to its certification program in place of the more common sous chef.

Your position may have an official title, and that is what you should use on your resume. If, however, it varies too far from general acceptance, you might want to offer the reader a clarification.

EXECUTIVE CHEF: Manages a larger staff, at least 10. This person is responsible and aware of food and labor cost and various kitchen accounting functions. Heavy decision making responsibility. Executive chefs may not do much actual cooking. Hotels, large restaurants, country clubs and cruise lines have executive chefs.

ASSISTANT EXECUTIVE CHEF: In huge hotels, an assistant executive chef shares the burden and responsibility of the Executive Chef. The position is above that of executive sous chef.

HEAD CHEF: Any chef in charge of any kitchen. Good term if you are not sure what to call your position.

WORKING CHEF/ HEAD WORKING CHEF/ HANDS ON CHEF: Is in charge of kitchen, makes culinary decisions, and answers only to owner or GM, but is actively involved, as the term says, in the preparation of cuisine.

CHEF MANAGER: Runs kitchen and generally front of the house and is responsible for coordinating the front and kitchen staff. Smaller resorts often have a chef manager.

KITCHEN MANAGER: This is usually the foreman of a kitchen with a set menu, requiring little or no culinary input. The term can also denote a steward who relieves a talented chef of management activities.

CHEF DE PARTIE : Head station cook. In large kitchen this person oversees a group of two to 12 other cooks. This may be a lead line cook.

GARDE MANGER: This is actually the technician making pates, galantines, show pieces with carvings, chaude-froid, etc, but the term may also be used for very specialized pantry chefs. The most misspelled word in kitchen language. Use of the term for regular pantry is somewhat inflated.

CHEF: means ‘boss’ in French and German. ‘One who cooks’ in English. Make it clear in your resume how the word is intended. A chef should be salaried, not paid by the hour.

TOURNANT: Literally, ‘the touring one’, ie the roundsman. Does all stations as needed. This is frequently a training position for the sous chef position.

SOUS CHEF:This person is either second in command or answers with other sous chefs to the Executive Sous Chef in larger properties. If there are several sous chefs, define the position as ‘morning sous chef’ or ‘club restaurant sous chef’. In some hotels the sous chef may be the chef in charge of a restaurant. In gargantuan situations there are even pantry sous chefs.

THE TWO BODY KITCHEN:If you are the chef of a two person kitchen, call yourself chef or working chef. If you are the other one, try Assistant to Chef Waldman, or Cook with Chef Duckpaddle in two person kitchen serving 120 customers. Duties were...

CATERING CHEF: Open to misunderstanding, as much catering work is on call. If you sat out a season on call you can simply list your catering positions. Unless you are aiming at a high management position, this has the additional advantage of providing several references over a short period of time. If you ran a catering kitchen, then state your position as that of Executive Chef, Catering Executive Chef or Head Chef. Catering is a specialty under slightly different rules. It is important to list the size and nature of events (buffet, stand up, sit down, maximum number of guests), and possibly the volume. If you had your own business, a list of clients or events is a good idea.

DOMESTIC CHEF/ PRIVATE CHEF/ ESTATE CHEF/ FAMILY COOK: Different words for more or less the same position. If duties extended beyond family dinners, (business entertaining, frequent parties, corporate jets, for instance) this needs to be stated. “Private Chef for the McGludridge residence” sounds niftier than the “McGludgridge family cook”.



ADDITIONAL RESUME INFORMATION:
MID AND UPPER LEVEL HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
(This was written at the request of a Swiss school of higher management. I leave it as it was written, although some will seem too obvious to Americans)

In general, the same principles apply to management presentations as to culinary resumes: Precision, necessary detail and honesty to provide the reader with information which will lead him to choose you for a suitable position.

In the United States, all job listings begin with the most recent position and work back to the first position. Pertinent information includes the positions held, the size and nature of the task performed, the ratings of the operation, unless you feel that these should be obvious to your audience.

The same equal opportunity limitations apply to management applicants as to kitchen staff. American Law prevents employers from using age, nationality, religion, disability status, sex, place of birth, or race as a hiring criteria. It follows that such information as health status, weight, nationality are not included on most American directed resumes.

It is necessary, however, for American hiring authorities to document the employability of overseas candidates. To this end we have also suggested that applicants include information about their U.S. Residential Status, if they are in possession of a ‘Green Card’ or other working visa.

The cover letter is more important to European candidates than to American applicants, as it can be a vehicle for a great deal of information pertinent to the position desired. This would include such questions as the requirements for relocation costs (or the lack of such a requirement, highly recommended at this time), whether a work permit is pending, and information which would not be usual on the resume.

Normal business correspondence rules apply for these letters: Keep them short and clear. Try to avoid “I” whenever possible.

Fortunately, very few firms in America insist on handwriting samples. Cover letters should be typed. They need not be in the same print, paper or format as the resume.

Do not airdrop your resumes or cover letters. Unless you are answering a blind ad, address the resume to the person in charge of hiring and date it. Even if you are answering a blind ad you can address it to “the advertiser of a position for ....”, naming the publication. Sign your cover letter by hand.

Although there are extremely successful candidates with one page resumes on straight white bond, there is an argument for a dressier resume (not inflated) indicating marketing and presentation orientation. Candidates with long backgrounds frequently choose between several multi page options. We have found bound resumes difficult to handle, since we are unable to present single pages to prospective employers.

Loose leaf portfolios in fold over two pocket binders are useful for European candidates, as they permit submission of odd sized materials describing the candidate’s current and previous places of employment (hotel brochures, restaurant advertising, etc) and pertinent copies of certification, letters of reference or other good show and tell material, and usually have a space for the enclosure of a business card.

Professionals with less material frequently submit a one and half page fold-over cover sheet with their name and address. The inside of the half page fold-over should not contain the most important information – the employment history, references, etc., but may contain a bullet list summary of abilities, achievements, and other important information.

Management applicants should always include a complete reference list with telephone number, an indication of professional relationship and past location of reference giver, and the reference giver’s current position.

The details of management resumes remain the same as those of kitchen or dining room resumes. Keep any decoration –lines, stripes, bullets – simple.

Paper is your choice, and will vary with your goal and position sought. It should, however, conform to the standard America 8 in X 11 inch letter format. There is nothing wrong with good printing on fine white bond. It is easy to read and dignified.

Some positions may be aided by fairly fancy paper or colors, but be careful. A light marbled parchment is also acceptable and stands up to repeated handling very well. Do be sure that the paper you send is pale and light weight enough for faxing and copying.

Present the most important information in a easily readable manner. Take care to show where several positions have been under the same corporation, consulting or management group to highlight employment stability.

You may choose to list continuous employment under a mentor who changed positions or corporations and requested you follow, or you may save that for an interviews.

List pertinent education and training under a clear and separate heading. If you have received awards, they should definitely be listed. Although hobbies and private matters do not belong on a professional resume, some nonprofessional affiliations such as Rotary Club membership or civic engagement may prove beneficial.

State your objective only when it is necessary. Especially more advanced management resumes should be directed at specific positions – not mass mailed. A universal objective statement of “seeking an upper level management position in a quality establishment” on the resume of an assistant general manager applying for the resident position at a Kempinsky, for instance, would be foolish.

Anyone seeking an advanced position should at least have access to a computer or word processor, on which they can use a database to address their applications. This facilitates initial application and follow through mail merge options.

There is much less confusion of terms in the management sector than in the kitchen. Most European terminology is recognized in the United States. The exception is the British use of “catering” to indicate general food and beverage, while in American English it is reserved for on or off premise banquet or buffet style service.

It is perhaps important to note, that the incursion of women in America into management positions has made it absolutely necessary to recognize the possibility of a resume recipient being female.

It is no longer wise to address any application DEAR SIR. Dear Sir or Madam will do when you cannot find the name of the person to whom you are applying, but a direct letter will always make a better impression.

More liberal forces are attempting to change the terms waitress or waiter to the gender neutral ‘Waitron’, which is generally perceived to be a bit silly. ‘Server’ is preferable, if you need to indicate front of the house positions. The use of the words ‘boy’ and ‘girl’, however, should be avoided at all costs.

Unfortunately, the level of courtesy in American hiring has sunk with the incorporation of of restaurants and hotels. It is more unusual for an applicant for a position to receive a letter of rejection or confirmation of receipt than not. You may wish, when applying to important positions, therefore, to send the resume return receipt requested.

If you are applying directly (not through a search firm or agency) to a corporate hiring authority or director of human resources, there is no reason not to make a short call confirming receipt of the materials, should you not hear from them for several days. Do not bypass an agency, if they have submitted you for the position.

If your resume is addressed to an individual in the executive offices, you may wish to speak with that person’s secretary.

Americans can be very cordial over the phone. This is sincere, but we play by a very different set of rules. American managers sometimes permit themselves to be interrupted out of courtesy, so be careful to keep any contacts short and not to call too often. A question such as “I hope I am not interrupting you?” or “Is this a convenient time for you?” will help.

If you do follow up per telephone, state your name and reason for calling clearly. It will help, if you are calling long distance, to add that you are calling from Switzerland. (This is Juan de la Cruz. I am calling Mr. Smith in the Executive Offices from Zurich, Switzerland to confirm that he has received the materials I sent him. Is he available?)

People like to send faxes more than they like to receive them. Your package through the mail is preferable to a fax, unless time is essential or you are specifically asked to send one. Even when you are asked to fax the resume, we always suggest a hard copy follow up.

by Hansjorg Schallenberg

Introduction

In the last article, there was a brief historical introduction of “Lucullus,” who was a great food lover. It was actually with the Roman occupation of lands in the east, that they had great access to new ingredients like spices, herbs and seeds. Many of these ingredients traveled through the Silk Road from the Far East to the Middle East and the Mediterranean sea, much like the cherry tree was brought by Lucullus to Europe. It was also the Romans who developed the first vineyards in the Rhône valley in France.

Therefore speaking some thousands of years ago, it was obviously the Roman and Egyptian Empires of that time in the West, who greatly benefited from the trading of spices, salt, sugar and other ingredients resulting in a well developed cuisine at an early age. After the fall of the Roman Empire, it was mainly the monks who preserved the scriptures and teachings and passed it on to the next generations.

Culinary Evolution after the Middle Ages

(Translated from the book of “Vladimir Durussel,” - “Menu Study, Writing and Planning.”

It was at the end of the Middle Ages when the Turks invaded Constantinople. This forced the elite, teachers and knowledgeable people to flee to the West. Many found refuge in Italy where they lived a comparable lifestyle.

It was in 1533 with the marriage of Catherine de Médicis of Florence to Henri II of France, where Italian culinary art influence was felt very quickly in France, where at the time the cuisine was more regional.

It was also in that time where different professional organizations were formed. These were promoted under the name of “corporations” (associations). Therefore, there were the: rôtisseurs, charcutiers, sauciers; which sub – divided themselves into: maîtres (teachers) – cuisiniers (cooks), vinaigriers, moutardiers, bouchers, pâtissiers, confiseurs, etc.

It is interesting to know, that in 1563, Charles IX, son of Catherine de Médicis, forbade to serve meals of more than 3 services (courses) per meal. (At that time the first course alone could have been composed of ten dishes and two to three soups)

It was in 1579, when hotel owners were asked to write in large letters, their dishes and the price to be paid at the entrance of their establishment.

It was in the first half of the XVI century (16th) when the cuisine had a great evolution. . . the choice of vegetables increased, new spices where available and it was in this époque (period) also that pâtes had a strong appearance.

However it was only in the so called Grand Siècle (Great Century), where a very intense development happened in the French cuisine and one can say in the cuisines of all Royal Courts in Europe.

It had to do with the excessive appetite of Louis XIV (14th), and with that culinary arts at its time reached its perfection. The King had a passion for vegetables and that gave the “vergers” (vegetable gardeners) and “potager” (soup makers) free hand to plant and creates new dishes. Soon the teaching reached the whole of Europe.

As earlier mentioned, in the time of Charles IX, son of Catherine de Médicis, professionals grouped themselves into corporations (associations). Whereas there were laws among the associations, that you could only produce certain ingredients or components which were part of a dish. Like the “Saucier” (sauce maker) was only allowed to make sauces, but not to grill or roast a chicken. This was the work of the rôtisseurs.

That was challenged by a certain Boulanger in 1765. He opened the first restaurant in the rue (street) des Poulies and had a complete kitchen brigade producing all the dishes.

In 1777 there were other restaurants called l’Almanach Dauphin. These were owned by the traiteurs, who however could only produce consommés (at the time called restaurants divins ou bouillons de Prince). As they were related with the corporation, they could not offer what Boulanger did, like: des pieds de mouton en sauce blanche (mouton shank in white sauce). Therefore the corporation of the traiteurs sued Boulanger. However, they lost the case in court and Boulanger was allowed to operate his restaurant.

Following the court decision, more and more restaurants opened in Paris and with that a great evolution happened in the culinary scene.

However a person I would like to write more in detail due to his great achievements and contribution to the evolution of food and the culinary profession, is nobody else then Antoinin – Marie – Carême, born 1783 and died 1833.

The biography of Antoine – Marie – Carême (written by the Swiss author Harry Schraemli, in his book “von Lucullus zu Escoffier)


Biography of Antoine – Marie – Carême



It was a cold and windy November night in the streets of Paris, and a young boy of about the age of nine tried to protect himself from the strong gusts of wind by staying as close as possible beside his father. A man, who in his appearance was clearly marked with frustration with society, the rulers and rich of his time and he had love for alcohol and his children!

The father, who was walking so fast that the boy could hardly catch up, stopped suddenly and placed his two hands on top of his son’s head as if he suddenly had an idea.

The father said, “Come my little Antoine!” Then his father walked with him in to a street lined with numerous “taverns” and chose one.

They entered the tavern. It was sticky and dirty and they found a place at an un-cleared table. From the bar counter, the loud voice of the fat female owner boomed and the father ordered food and wine. After a short while, she served the house specialty – “Noix de boeuf en surprise,” and with the food, Antoine got a glass of red wine which warmed him up and brought a light red color to his otherwise pale face.

The father looked at his son: the very sharp cut face of the boy and his energetic movements clearly showed that the boy was full of energy and has a temperament. Further, his broad forehead explained his intelligence. His father, a father of 18 children, believed that Antoine, the second to the eldest, was just like him and that was the reason why, he chose him that night to go out with him.

The father, a small house kitchen master (private household chef), did not earn enough to feed all of his children.

The father, uncertain, caressed the curly hair of Antoine and said: ”Listen to your father. . . Out in the wide world, it is very beautiful and you can live well. And for intelligent people there is always a place. Where we live in the “Rue Bac,” the dirty street, poverty and need, will always dominate. Hardly enough sunshine comes into the dark rooms of our house and just when the last of you gets fed, the first one is shouting for bread again. For idiots, just to live is good enough, however for intelligent people, my son, it is hell. Next June you will be ten years old and at ten you can be already your own man, if you want to be.”

Antoine looked at his father with surprise and tried to understand what his father was really trying to say.

As both stepped back out in the cold November night, the young boy felt, that there will be a change in his life! In a neighborhood unknown to him, the father suddenly stopped, he took the very fine boy and embraced and kissed him on the forehead, and with tears running down his cheeks, he said in a low voice: “Beloved young one, go out in to the world and forget your father and mother. . . forget were you came from. Go on your way and become a light in heaven for our country, how you can afford and teach the world. A great time comes close and the world seems to be fermenting, bad will sink into the ground, good will go to heaven. Antoine I leave you up to you and your own destiny. Live well.”

Before the boy could understand what was happening, he was alone in the streets of Paris. Alone in the streets of Paris, with tears in his eyes Antoine was faced with the thought of being on his own now, without home, mother and father and may have to sleep in the streets.

Suddenly a voice was calling his attention and as he went closer he saw a well-built man. After the man learned about the story of the heartless father, he invited Antoine to stay with him.

Antoine learned that his new foster father was a chef. From his home kitchen, he prepared meals and sold them to the neighborhood. The next day, work in the kitchen started and with that a career as a chef, no one made as recorded in history. Antoine loved the grey-haired and happy Gargotier, even though he was a very strict chef in the kitchen, a style of discipline and hard work, which was new to him.

Antoine stayed for 6 years with his foster father and at the age of 15 years, in the year 1798, he started an apprenticeship at the Confiserie de Bailly. That was were the true talent of Carême, very quickly showed and was further developed. In only 2 years, he was one of the most appreciated chefs of the Maison Bailly. However Carême did not sit back and celebrate his young achievements. He stepped further and with the support of the owner of the Maison Bailly, he made daily visits to the library and the Stahlstichkabinettes. Marie-Antoine Carême (his real name actually), focused on studying historical motives, which the owner of the Maison Bailly gave him the chance to make into “pièce montée” (center pieces).

So it happened with the talent of Marie-Antoine Carême, that when there was a party in on of the rich houses, he was sent as an extra to monitor the buffet set up and at the right moment, to place his artful center piece. In the house of the Prince Talleyrand, there would not have been a party without the art full center pieces of Marie-Antoine Carême.

In 1813, Marie-Antoine Carême, was the owner of a confisserie in the “Rue de la Paix” in Paris and he enjoyed good business. However, it was during that time when his professional knowledge made greater advancements. He studied the culture and behaviors of the Romans and Greek, and that was the time, when he started to write professional books, which at that time most professions were lacking. He codified the classic French recipes that are still being executed to this day by chefs all over the world.

Marie – Antoine Carême, later traveled a lot and even to Russia, and that not on his own wanting to go he was welcomed and asked by the Russian leader at that time. In his lifetime, Carême has contributed tremendously to the development of the culinary arts. From a poor boy abandoned by his father in the streets of Paris to fend for himself, he rose to become one of the greatest culinary luminaries of all times.



Well with this short biography of Marie – Antoine Carême, I gave here as my magazine space is running out, which for sure is far longer by the author Harry Schraemli. However in short, Marie – Antoine Carême, was truly a genius and a hard working individual in the hard times he lived in. He was respected by Kings and the Kings chefs respected him and this is the reason why he is called the Chef of the Kings. However, whatever he wrote, he wrote based on research and practical experience. He became a reliable source of information to all other master chefs after him and if you read Escoffier’s works, a lot of his teachings he learned from Marie – Antoine Carême’s books.

Next issue, the biography of the “chef of the chefs”, Escoffier (born 1847).


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For any comments, such as wrong dates or wrong facts as may have been published in other books, I am open to receive them and will check back with the author’s son about the source of information.

Hans Schallenberg is the co-founder and Director for Hotel Operations of the International School for Culinary Arts & Hotel Management (ISCAHM), located at the 4th floor FBR Arcade, Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City. Tel Nos. (02) 920-1481 or 926-8888. Website: www.iscahm.com E-mail: sales@iscahm.com