1. Roux A cooked mixture of equal parts by weight of fat and flour

2. Fat The cooking fats used for preparing roux are as follows:

Clarified butter: Preferred for the finer sauces because of its flavor.

Margarine: Widely used in place of butter because of its lower cost. Flavor is inferior to butter and does not make as fine a sauce. Quality varies from brand to brand.

Animal fats: Chicken fat, beef drippings, lard, etc. can be used when their flavor is appropriate to the soup or sauce. Properly utilized animal fats will enhance the flavor.

Vegetable oil and shortening: Not preferred by most chefs because they add no flavor.

3. Flour The thickening power of flour depends on its starch content. Bread flour has less starch and more protein than cake flour.

Bread flour frequently is used in commercial kitchens for general cooking purposes. All soup and sauce recipes in AFCC lesson plans are based on bread flour. Proportions of roux to liquid must be adjusted if another flour is used.

Flour is sometimes browned dry in the oven for use in brown roux, but has only one-third the thickening power of un-browned flour.

4. Ingredient Proportions A well-made roux should be stiff, not runny or pour able. Roux with too much fat is called a slack roux. Using excess fat increases the cost of roux and allows the excess to rise to the top of the soup or sauce which makes the product look and taste greasy.

5. Preparing Roux Roux must be cooked so that the finished product does not have the raw starchy taste of the flour. There are three kinds or roux depending on how much they are cooked.

WHITE ROUX Cooked for only a few minutes, just enough to cook out the raw taste of the flour. Once the white roux has a frothy, chalky, slightly gritty appearance the cooking is stopped before it begins to color. White roux is used as a thickening agent for products based on milk.

BLOND ROUX Also known as a pale roux, is cooked a little longer just until the roux begins to change to a slightly darker color. Blond roux is used for products based on white stocks and results in a pale ivory color for the finished product.

BROWN ROUX Brown roux is cooked until it takes on a light brown color with a nutty aroma and has the consistency of beach sand. This roux is cooked slowly over low heat to allow easy browning without scorching. For a deeper brown roux the flour may be browned in the oven before adding the fat.

6. Basic Procedure for Roux Preparation

Melt fat.
Add equal amounts of flour, stirring until fat and flour are thoroughly mixed
Cook to require degree for white, blond, or brown roux.
NOTE: Cooking is done in a heavy bottomed saucepan on top of the stove and stirred constantly for even cooking. Use low heat for brown roux, moderate heat for white or blond roux.

Large quantities may be baked in the oven.

Some clubs make batches large enough to last for a few days or a week.

7. Incorporating the Roux

Combining roux and liquid to achieve a smooth, lump-free product is a skill that takes practice to master.

8. General Principles

Liquid may be added to roux, or roux may be added to liquid.
The liquid may be either hot or cool, but not ice cold, as a very cold liquid will solidify the fat.
Roux may be either warm or cold, but not sizzling hot. Adding hot liquid to a hot roux causes spattering and possible lumping.
Within these listed guidelines, there is room for a number of variations. We will describe two acceptable methods here.
NOTE: Always use stainless steel pans for white sauces as whipping in an aluminum pan makes a gray sauce, not white.

METHOD 1 ADDING LIQUID TO ROUX

This method is used when a roux is made up specifically for one soup, sauce or gravy being prepared.

USE A HEAVY BOTTOMED SAUCEPOT Prevent scorching to either the roux or the stock.
COOL ROUX Once the roux is made remove it from the fire to cool slightly.
POUR LIQUID SLOWLY Beat vigorously to prevent lumping. If the liquid is hot the starch will gelatinize quickly. If the liquid is cool it can be added slowly to dissolve the roux before adding the remaining liquid.
BRING LIQUID TO A BOIL Continue to beat well as roux does not reach its full thickening power until near the boiling point.
SIMMER THE PRODUCT Simmer product for a minimum of 20 minutes stirring from time to time until all the starchy taste of the flour has been cooked out.
FINISHING THE PRODUCT When product is finished, keep it hot in a bain-marie or cooled for later use. Either way it should be covered or should have a thin film of butter melted on the top to prevent a skin formation.
METHOD 2 ADDING ROUX TO LIQUID

USE A HEAVY BOTTOM SAUCEPOT Bring liquid to a simmer.

ADD ROUX In small quantities whipping vigorously to break up all.

CONTINUE TO BEAT Small quantities into the simmering liquid until the desired consistency is reached.

CONTINUE TO COOK Simmer until roux is cooked and no starchy taste remains.

UNDER THICKEN IF Product is to simmer for a long time because it will thicken as it reduces.

PROPORTIONS OF ROUX TO LIQUID

The table below indicates the quantities of roux needed to thicken one gallon of liquid to a thin, medium, or thick.

ROUX PROPORTIONS IN SAUCES

SAUCE Thin or light, medium, thick or Heavy

FAT 6 oz. 8 oz. 12 oz.

FLOUR 6 oz. 8 oz. 12 oz.

ROUX 12 oz. 16 oz. 24 oz.

LIQUID 1 gallon 1 gallon 1 gallon



9. Other Thickening Agent

STARCHES

BUERRE MANIE Equal parts of soft raw butter and flour worked together to form a smooth paste. Used for quick thickening at the end of cooking to finish a sauce. The raw butter adds flavor and gives sheen to the sauce when it melts. To use a Buerre Manie drop very small pieces into a simmering sauce and beat with a whip until smooth. Repeat until desired consistency is reached. Simmer until flour is cooked and remove from fire.
WHITEWASH OR SLURRY A thin mixture of flour and cold water products made with a whitewash or slurry have neither as good a flavor nor as fine a texture as those made with roux. Whitewash is not recommended for use.
CORNSTARCH Produces a product that is almost clear with a glossy texture. To use, mix cornstarch with cool water until smooth. Stir into hot liquid bring to a boil, and simmer until liquid turns clear and there is no starchy taste. Excessive boiling will breakdown the cornstarch and will thin out the product. Also, products thickened with cornstarch may be thinned out if held on the steam table for long periods. Cornstarch is used extensively for sweet sauces to accompany certain meats, as well as in desserts and dessert sauces. It has twice the thickening power of flour.
ARROWROOT Used like cornstarch but gives an even clearer product. Its use is limited because of its high cost.
WAXY MAIZE Used for products that are to be frozen. Flour and other starches break down and lose their thickening power when frozen. Waxy Maize does not. It is handled like cornstarch.
PRE-GELATINIZED OR INSTANT STARCH Cooked, gelatinized, then redried which will thicken a cold liquid without heating. These starches are rarely used in sauce making, but are frequently used in the bakeshop.
BREADCRUMBS AND OTHER CRUMBS Will thicken a liquid very quickly because they have already been cooked, like instant starches. Crumbs may be used when smoothness of texture is not desired. A common example is the use of gingersnap crumbs to thicken sauerbraten gravy.
LIAISON A combination of egg yolks and cream used to give a velvety texture to soups and sauces. Although a liaison does tend to thicken, that is not its real purpose, as its thickening power is light. The real purpose of a liaison is to refine and smooth the texture of a thickened liquid by binding. It is added to liquids that have already been thickened by something else.
PROCEDURE FOR USING A LIAISON

Beat egg yolks and cream together in a stainless steel bowl. Recommended proportion is 2 parts cream to 1 part egg yolk.
Slowly add a little of the hot liquid to the liaison whipping constantly.
Add the warmed tempered liaison to the rest of the product stirring well as you pour it.
At this point, sauce should not be heated above 180°F or it will break or curdle. Under no circumstances should it boil.
Hold for service above 140°F for sanitation reasons, but lower than 180°F.
9. NATURAL THICKENING BY REDUCTION Simmering a product for a long time results evaporation and will result in a more concentrated and flavorful product. This is the same technique we use when making glazes from stocks. Some reduction takes place in nearly all sauces depending on how long they are simmered.

10. Reduction Terminology

To reduce by one half—means to cook away one-half of the volume until half is left.

To reduce by three fourths—means to cook away three-fourths of the volume until only one forth is left

To reduce by ausec—means to reduce until dry or nearly dry.

Frying is one of the most basic forms of cooking and yet, surprisingly, it's the one that seems to go wrong the most often. Cooks who have no problem handling a wok, still manage to make a mess of things when it comes to the humble frying pan.

There are generally two reasons for this. One is that the pan is often either too hot or too cold. The other is that the food is pretty much left to its own devices and either burns or fails to cook through. So here's the number one tip:

Frying is not a passive activity.

Slapping something into the skillet and stirring occasionally is not the way to go. You need to agitate the food on an almost continuous basis, just as you would if cooking in a wok.

To fry successfully - that is, without absorbing too much fat - you must cook at a high temperature. In fact, the fat in your pan should be smoking when the food goes in but it should not be on the heat.

Two things will happen. There will be an instant sealing of the food which will reduce moisture loss and inhibit fat absorption, plus the pan will cool down slightly while still maintaining a cooking temperature.

You need to do two things: reduce the stove temperature to about half that which you used to heat the pan up - and keep the food moving. You can do that by shaking the pan, tossing the food in it or simply using a spatula. That's all there is to it. Just imagine you're using a flat wok.

Does this apply to omelets? Yes it does. They will cook quickly and well using this method. They will also burn easily if left so you need to work at continuously drawing the cooked mixture to the center of the pan and tipping the runny stuff towards the edge, returning the pan to the heat only when it's obvious that cooking has stopped.

Just remember to always treat food in the frying pan as if it's at boot camp. It can rest occasionally, but no longer than is necessary to reheat the pan it's cooking in.

Deep fat frying

Apart from French fries - or 'chips' as the French chefs call them - just about anything deep fried needs to have some kind of covering to protect it. This is usually either batter or breadcrumbs.

Both are simple to do, but have somehow been made more complicated with the passing of time and the elevation of chefs to celebrity status.

These days breadcrumbs are easy. Just buy a packet of one-step breadcrumbs from your supermarket and follow the instructions on the pack.

Too easy? Okay, just once and for the fun of it, find some stale bread, reduce it to crumbs in a food processor (about half a loaf should do it), line it up with a plate of flour and a bowl of beaten egg.

Now coat the food in the flour, dip it in the beaten egg and coat it in the breadcrumbs making sure to use one hand for the dry and the other for the wet ingredients.

When you've had enough of that, try it my way :)

Keep it simple

Batter is nothing more than flour to which a liquid has been added and air has been introduced through sustained beating. And that's it.

You don't believe me?

British famous fish and chips, renowned for the crisp, light batter in which it's fish are cooked. It consists of just three ingredients: flour, water and elbow grease.

The secret of a light batter is to beat in as much air as possible - which is one of the reasons that chilled soda water or beer work so well. They are already full of gas which remains trapped in the mixture as it expands on cooking.

There are no hard and fast rules about quantities. Simply beat enough liquid into the flour to give you the consistency you want. I like my batter mix to coat the back of a dessert spoon when dipped into it and immediately removed.

To coat, lightly dust the fish with flour and pat it in between your hands before dipping the fish into the batter. Hold the fillet at one end, drain off any excess liquid and transfer immediately into the fryer.

Too little heat spells defeat

Once again the trick is to get the fat really hot before doing any cooking. And I do mean hot. Like, smoking hot. The top temperature your fryer permits in other words. (If you cook using an open pan and basket please be very careful with this, fat fires are not a pretty sight).

Yes, I know there are cute little diagrams on the side of your cooker telling you what temperature to use for fish, what for chicken and so on. Ignore them. First heat your fat to the maximum, then add the food, then turn the dial back to the temperature suggested by your product manufacturer.

How do you know when the food is done? It floats to the surface of the fat. Take it out, drain it thoroughly, and remember that it will continue to cook for quite some time afterwards. Which is why chicken can be held until everything else is ready, while fish needs to be served almost immediately.

Follow the simple guidelines above, use really fresh ingredients and you will have nothing but success after success. That really is all there is to it.